About B.Tech: Starting with the Civil Engineering, Engineering profession has come a long way and there are now hundreds of branches of engineering and every year new branches are coining up. Here we shall success about the important branches of engineering only. The major branches of engineering are:   Aeronautical Engineering Aerospace Engineering Applied Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering Architecture Agricultural Engineering ... read more

About B.Tech:

Starting with the Civil Engineering, Engineering profession has come a long way and there are now hundreds of branches of engineering and every year new branches are coining up. Here we shall success about the important branches of engineering only. The major branches of engineering are:

 

Aeronautical Engineering Aerospace Engineering Applied Electronics & Instrumentation Engineering Architecture Agricultural Engineering Automobile Engineering Automation and Robotics Bio-chemical Engineering Bio-Medical Engineering Bio-Technology Bio-Engineering Bio-Informatics Bio Medical Instrumentation Technology/Engineering Building & Construction Technology Ceramic Engineering Chemical Engineering Civil Engineering Computer Science and Engineering Computer Software & Hardware Engineering Dairy Technology Electrical Engineering Electronics Engineering Electronics & Telecommunication Ocean Engineering Polymer Engineering Polymer Science and Rubber Technology Printing Technology Petroleum Engineering Production Engineering

Electronics and Communication Engineering Electronics & Instrumentation Environmental Engineering Energy Engineering Fire Engineering Food Technology Food Processing Technology Food Processing & Preservation Technology Industrial Engineering Industrial Bio-Technology Information Technology Instrumentation and Control Engineering Interior Design Leather Technology Marine Engineering Materials Science & Technology Metallurgy & Materials Science Manufacture Engineering Metallurgical Engineering Mechanical Engineering Mechatronics Mining Engineering Oil & Paint Technology Pulp & Paper Technology Planning Rubber Technology Sugar Technology Textile Engineering & Technology Transportation Engineering

 

Aeronautical Engineering:

 

Branch of engineering that deals with study or practice of flying and navigating aircraft Aeronautical engineers design, develop or produce new commercial or military aircraft; develop more powerful but also more eco-friendly jet engines.

Some of the elements of aeronautical engineering are:

Aerodynamics - the study of fluid flow around objects such as wings or through objects such as wind tunnels.

Propulsion - the energy to move a vehicle through the air (or in outer space) is provided by internal combustion engines, jet engines, or rockets.

Control engineering - the study of mathematical modelling of systems and designing them in order that they behave in the desired way.

Structures - design of the physical configuration of the craft to withstand the forces encountered during flight. Aerospace engineering aims very much at keeping structures lightweight.

Materials science - related to structures, aerospace engineering also studies the materials of which the aerospace structures are to be built. New materials with very specific properties are invented, or existing ones are modified to improve their performance.

Aero elasticity - the interaction of aerodynamic forces and structural flexibility, potentially causing flutter, divergence, etc.

Computer science - specifically concerning the design and programming of any computer systems on board an aircraft or spacecraft and the simulation of systems.

Aerospace Engineering:

 

Aerospace engineering encompasses the fields of aeronautical and astronautical (spacecraft) engineering. Aerospace engineers are concerned with the design, analysis, construction, development, testing and manufacture of commercial and military aircraft, missiles and spacecraft. Aerospace engineers have specialties in aerodynamics, propulsion, thermodynamics, structures, celestial mechanics, acoustics and guidance and control systems. For aerospace engineers employment is available with Air India, Indian Airlines, Pawan Hans, Helicopter Corporation of India and flying clubs, private airlines and govt. owned air services etc. Besides airlines, they get employment in organizations such as HAL, Defense Research and Development Organisation and laboratories, National Aeronautical Lab, Aeronautical Development Establishment & Civil Aviation Department, to name a few. With the rise in the number of air taxis and liberalization of airspace. avenues for aeronautical engineers have seen upward swing.

 

Agricultural Engineering:

 

Branch of engineering that deals with design and development of farm machineries and other implements related to agriculture, processing of agricultural products etc. With entry of high-tech entering the agricultural engineering, Satellites will improve agriculture, resource management and you can think of it as micromanagement from the heavens. Global positioning systems, says Bernie Engel, a Purdue professor in agricultural and biological engineering, use satellite signals to help determine where we're at on the ground. When used with geographical information systems, these systems can provide a tremendous amount of detail about soil, air, and other spatially varying parameters. Engel says site-specific agriculture is already heading in that direction. So rather than viewing a 40-acre field as a whole, it can be examined on a scale of acres or even square feet. By combining various data about soils, for example, farmers can predict where they may need to apply fertilizer or pesticide or where they're likely to have an erosion problem. Computers will also suggest specific, appropriate action. "There are lots of implications in agriculture and natural resources management," Engel says, "Forests, grasslands and ranges can be monitored this way, too." A large percentage of agricultural engineers work in academia or for government agencies such as the States Department of Agriculture or state agricultural extension services. Agricultural engineers work in production, sales, management, research and development, or applied science.

 

Automobile Engineering:

 

Branch of engineering that deals with design, development, manufacture and repair of automobiles. Matthew Franchek, a Purdue University professor of mechanical engineering, says he believes that engines in the future will be able to continuously monitor their own health. Within 10 years, he predicts, an automobile will communicate with its driver and with service personnel to request maintenance. Furthermore, relying on global positioning satellites, individual cars will be able to communicate on-the-road emergency needs during vehicle failures. Emergency road crews will be able to pinpoint the stalled vehicle and know precisely what parts are needed to repair it.

Architecture / Planning:

Architectural engineering is the application of engineering principles to the design of technical systems of buildings. The profession of architectural engineering includes practicing engineers designing, managing and constructing mechanical, electrical or structural systems for buildings. Architecture combines technicality with aesthetics and creativity. An architect's job is to create landscapes and design buildings, roads and bridges or even townships. Needless to say, architects play an important role in society's development.

Bioinformatics:

Bioinformatics is an engineering discipline at the convergence of computing and the life sciences aimed at development of technologies for storing, extraction, organizing, analyzing, interpreting and utilizing the information being generated. It is truly an interdisciplinary field. The potential employers for bioinformatics graduates includes: Specialized bioinformatics companies. Pharmaceutical and biotech companies employing bioinformatics technology in all the stages of the drug discovery process. A biotech/ industrial biotech companies using bioinformatics for study of crops and livestock. Computing companies building specialized hardware and software for bioinformatics.

 

Other potential employers include academic research groups, govt. agencies such as patent offices etc. The terms bioinformatics and computational biology are often used interchangeably, although the former typically focuses on algorithm development and specific computational methods, while the latter focuses more on hypothesis testing and discovery in the biological domain. Although this distinction is used by National Institutes of Health in their working definitions of Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, it is clear that there is a tight coupling of developments and knowledge between the more hypothesis-driven research in computational biology and technique-driven research in bioinformatics. Computational biology also includes lesser known but equally important subdisciplines such as computational biochemistry and computational biophysics. A common thread in projects in bioinformatics and computational biology is the use of mathematical tools to extract useful information from noisy data produced by high-throughput biological techniques such as genomics (The field of data mining overlaps with computational biology in this regard). A representative problem in bioinformatics is the assembly of high-quality DNA sequences from fragmentary "shotgun" DNA sequencing, while in computational biology, a representative problem might be statistical testing of a hypothesis of common gene regulation using data from mRNA microarrays or mass spectrometry.

Biomedical Instrumentation Technology/ Biomedical Instrumentation Engineering:

 

With the introduction of sophisticated diagnostic and life support medical equipment currently used for medical investigations, during open heart surgery, dialysis etc. in modern hospitals throughout the country, the need was felt for well trained personnel with knowledge of both the human system and technology of the instruments used, and who would thus understand and be able to handle such equipment with necessary skill, confidence and expertise. The objective of this course/field is to impart all possible applications of bio-medical instrumentation, its technology and its use and intelligent operations.

Biotechnology:

 

Biotechnology is the industrial and pharmaceutical application of cell and molecular biology. It is a major growth industry worldwide, with exciting new developments in medicine, agriculture, horticulture, forensic science and microbiology, and it offers increasing opportunities for graduates with biotechnology knowledge and skills. Applied biotechnology involves introducing new genes into organisms, breeding organisms to form new variants or treating organisms with specific compounds.

Biological Engineering:

 

It is a broad-based engineering discipline that deals with bio-molecular and molecular processes, product design, sustainability and analysis of biological systems. Generally, bioengineering encompasses other engineering disciplines when they are applied to living organisms (e.g., prosthetics in mechanical engineering). Bioengineering is often synonymous with biomedical engineering, though in the strict sense the term can be applied more broadly to include food engineering and agricultural engineering. Biotechnology also falls under the purview of the broad umbrella of bioengineering. Biological Engineering is the same thing as Agricultural Engineering, whereas Biomedical engineering (also known as bioengineering) is related with the medical field. Biological engineering is called Bioengineering by some colleges and Biomedical engineering is called Bioengineering by others. Therefore, people could easily get confused.

 

Definition of Bioengineering at Binghamton University

Bioengineering is similar to traditional fields of engineering in that all engineering programs educate individuals in the art of product and process development for the improvement of human health and quality of life. However, bioengineering is unique because of the need to understand the emergent properties (Emergence) of living systems. Living systems, unlike most man-made products and processes, are composed of large numbers of "self-replicating" components, which undergo "self-organization." These features provide living systems with most of their fascinating and complex properties and are the primary focus of bioengineering studies.

Biochemical Engineering:

 

Biochemical engineering is a branch of chemical engineering that mainly deals with the design and construction of unit processes that involve biological organisms or molecules. Biochemical engineering is often taught as a supplementary option to chemical engineering due to the similarities in both the background subject curriculum and problem-solving techniques used by both professions. Its applications are used in the pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and water treatment industries. Bio-chemical engineering has two central domains: (i) processing of biological materials and (ii) processing using biological agents as living cells, enzymes or antibodies. Biochemical engineering is an interdisciplinary field: (i) it requires integrated knowledge of governing biological properties and as well as (ii) of chemical engineering methodology and strategies. This branch captures the information and technologies from both areas and accomplishes new synthesis for bioprocess design, operation, analysis and optimization. Classic topics of biochemical engineering are design and analysis of bioreactors, biomass production in cell cultures, instrumentation and control of bioprocesses and bio-product recovery. Recent developments are metabolic engineering and bio-systems technology.

Biomedical Engineering:

Biomedical Engineering is the application of engineering principles and techniques to the medical field. It combines the expertise of engineering with medical needs to improve healthcare. It is a less known discipline than other specialties such as electrical engineering or mechanical engineering. An increasing number of universities with an engineering faculty now have a biomedical engineering program or department from the undergraduate to the doctorate level. Traditionally, biomedical engineering has been an interdisciplinary field to specialize in after completing an undergraduate degree in a more traditional discipline of engineering or science. However, undergraduate programs are becoming more widespread. Research and development is the most common line of work for biomedical engineers and covers a very wide array of fields: bioinformatics, medical imaging, image processing, physiological signal processing, biomechanics, biomaterials, systems analysis, 3-D modeling, etc. Examples of concrete applications of biomedical engineering are the development and manufacture of prostheses, medical devices, diagnostic devices and imaging equipment, laboratory equipment, drugs and other therapies as well as the application of engineering principles to biological science problems. Clinical engineering is a branch of biomedical engineering for professionals responsible for the management of medical equipment in a hospital. The tasks of a clinical engineer are typically the acquisition and management of medical device inventory, supervising biomedical engineering technicians (BMETs), ensuring that safety and regulatory issues are taken into consideration and serving as a technological consultant for any issues in a hospital where medical devices are concerned. Clinical engineers work closely with the IT department and medical physicists.

Chemical Engineering:

Chemical engineering applies principles of chemistry and physics to the design and production of materials that undergo chemical changes during their manufacture". Chemical engineer also participates in efforts to maintain a clean environment and to create substitutes for or find ways to preserve our natural resources. The activities of a chemical engineer are in many fields like petroleum refining, fertilizer technology, processing of food and agricultural products, synthetic food, petrochemicals, synthetic fibers, coal and mineral based industries, and prevention and control of environmental pollution. Chemical engineers will be needed to develop new polymeric materials for medical devices, light-weight alloys for aircraft and solid-state materials that allow electronic miniaturization and further development of the computer industry. Improved health care also will require new manufacturing processes for pharmaceutical products. Chemical engineering largely involves the design and maintenance of chemical processes for large-scale manufacture. Chemical engineers in this branch are usually employed under the title of process engineer.

Chemical engineers are aiming for the most economical process. This means that the entire production chain must be planned and controlled for costs. A chemical engineer can both simplify and complicate "showcase" reactions for an economic advantage. Using a higher pressure or temperature makes several reactions easier; ammonia, for example, is simply produced from its component elements in a high-pressure reactor. Three primary physical laws underlying chemical engineering design are Conservation of mass. Conservation of momentum and Conservation of energy. The movement of mass and energy around a chemical process are evaluated using Mass balances and energy balances which apply these laws to whole plants, unit operations or discrete parts of equipment. In doing so, Chemical Engineers use principles of thermodynamics, reaction kinetics and transport phenomena. The task of performing these balances is now aided by process simulators, which are complex software models (such as Pro II and Hysys) that can solve mass and energy balances and usually have built-in modules to simulate a variety of common unit operations.

The modern discipline of chemical engineering encompasses much more than just process engineering. Chemical engineers are now engaged in the development and production of a diverse range of products, as well as in commodity and specialty chemicals. These products include high performance materials needed for aerospace, automotive, biomedical, electronic, environmental and military applications. Examples include ultra-strong fibers, fabrics, adhesives and composites for vehicles, bio-compatible materials for implants and prosthetics, gels for medical applications, pharmaceuticals, and films with special dielectric, optical or spectroscopic properties for opto-electronic devices. Additionally, chemical engineering is often intertwined with biology and biomedical engineering. Many chemical engineers work on biological projects such as understanding biopolymers (proteins) and mapping the human genome.

Civil Engineering:

 

Civil engineering is the oldest branch of engineering and incorporates the design and construction of roads, airports, tunnels, bridges, water supply and sewage systems, dams harbours, railroad systems, docks, power supply systems, building and even nuclear power plants. Civil engineering offers areas of specialization such as structural engineering, highway engineering and water management. Most civil engineering today deals with roads, Railways, structures, water supply, sewer, flood control and traffic. In essence, civil engineering is a profession which makes the world a more habitable place so live in. Engineering has developed from observations of the ways natural and constructed systems react and from the development of empirical equations that provide bases for design. Civil engineering is the broadest of the engineering fields. In fact, engineering was once divided into only two fields—military and civil. Civil engineering is still an umbrella field comprised of many related specialties.

Sub-disciplines of civil engineering are: 

General civil engineering

Structural engineering
Geotechnical engineering

Transportation engineering

Environmental engineering

Hydraulic engineering

Construction engineering

Urban engineering

 

General civil engineering is concerned with the overall interface of fixed projects with the greater world. General civil engineers work closely with surveyors and specialized civil engineers to fit and serve fixed projects within their given site, community and terrain by designing grading, drainage (flood control), paving, water supply, sewer service, electric and communications supply and land (real property) divisions. General engineers spend much of their time visiting project sites, developing community/neighborhood consensus, and preparing construction plans.

 

Structural engineering is concerned with the design of bridges, buildings, offshore oil platforms. dams etc. Structural design and structural analysis are components of structural engineering and a key component in the structural design process. This involves computing the stresses and forces at work within a structure. There are some structural engineers who work in non-typical areas, such as designing aircraft, spacecraft and even biomedical devices. Major design concerns are building seismic resistant structures and seismically retrofitting existing structures. In a practical sense, structural engineering is largely the application of Newtonian mechanics to the design of structural elements and systems: such as buildings, bridges, walls (including retaining walls), dams, tunnels, etc.

 

Structural engineers ensure that their designs satisfy a given design intent predicated on safety (i.e. structures do not collapse without due warning) and on serviceability (i.e. floor vibration and building sway are not uncomfortable to occupants). In addition, structural engineers are responsible for making efficient use of funds and materials to achieve these over-arching goals. Typically, entry-level structural engineers may design simple beams, columns, and floors of a new building, including calculating the loads on each member and the load capacity of various building materials (steel, timber, masonry. concrete). An experienced engineer would tend to render more difficult structures, considering physics of moisture, heat and energy inside the building components. In the United States, the structural engineering field is often subdivided into bridge engineering and structural engineering for buildings. Additionally, structural engineers often further specialize into special structure manufacture or construction, such as pipeline engineering or industrial structures. Structural loads on structures are generally classified as: live loads such as the weight of occupants and furniture in a building, the forces of wind or weights of water, the forces due to seismic activity such as an earthquake, dead loads including the weight of the structure itself and ail major architectural components and live, roof loads such as material and manpower loading the structure during construction Structural engineers mainly fight against the forces of nature like winds, earthquakes and Tsunamis. In recent years, however, reinforcing structures against sabotage has taken on increased importance.

 

Geotechnical engineering also known as soil mechanics is concerned with soil properties, mechanics of soil particles, compression and swelling of soils, seepage, slopes, retaining walls, foundations, footings, ground and rock anchors, use of synthetic tensile materials in soil structures, soil-structure interaction and soil dynamics. Geotechnical engineering covers this field of studies for application in engineering. The importance of geotechnical engineering can hardly be overstated: buildings must be supported by reliable foundations. Dam design and construction reducing flooding of lower drainage areas is an important subject of geotechnical engineering.

 

Transportation engineering is primarily concerned with motorized road transportation. This includes areas such as queuing theory and traffic flow planning, roadway geometric design and driver behavior patterns. Simulation of traffic operation is performed through use of trip generation, traffic assignment algorithms which can be highly complex computational problems. Other specialized areas of transportation engineering deal with the designs of non-road transportation facilities, such as rail systems, airports, and ports.

 

Environmental engineering deals with the treatment of chemical, biological, and/or thermal waste, the purification of water and air, and the remediation of contaminated sites, due to prior waste disposal or accidental contamination. Among the topics covered by environmental engineering are water purification, sewage treatment, and hazardous waste management. Environmental engineering is related to the fields of hydrology, geohydrology and meteorology insofar as knowledge of water and groundwater flows is required to understand pollutant transport. Environmental engineers are also involved in pollution reduction, green engineering, and industrial ecology. Environmental engineering also deals with the gathering of information on the environmental consequences of proposed actions and the assessment of effects of proposed actions for the purpose of assisting society and policy makers in the decision making process. Environmental engineering is the contemporary term for sanitary engineering. Some other terms in use are public health engineering and environmental health engineering.

 

Hydraulic engineering is concerned with the flow and conveyance of fluids, principally water. This area of engineering is intimately related to the design of pipelines, water distribution systems, drainage facilities (including bridges, dams, channels, culverts, levees, and storm sewers), canals, and to environmental engineering. Hydraulic engineers design these facilities using the concepts of fluid pressure, fluid statics, fluid dynamics, and hydraulics, among others.

 

Construction engineering involves planning and execution of the designs from transportation, site development, hydraulic, environmental, structural and geotechnical engineers.

 

Urban engineering is a subset of the general practice of urban planning. It is limited to civil engineering in an urban setting and does not include designing buildings or their functions.

Computer Science and Engineering:

 

This course is concerned with theoretical and engineering aspects of computer architecture, system and application software, computer networks, VLSI, internet technology and applications. Adequate emphasis is also given to programming, algorithm design and analysis, formal languages and automata theory, and theoretical computer science. Computer Engineering is a discipline encompassing electronic engineering and computer science. This hybrid of electronic engineering and computer science allows the computer engineer to work on both software and hardware and to integrate the two. Computer engineers are involved on all aspects of computing, from the design of individual microprocessor, personal computers, and supercomputer, to the integration of computer systems into other kinds of systems (a motor vehicle, for example, has a number of subsystems that are computer and digitally oriented). Electronic equipment today relies very heavily on computer technology and so electronic engineers and computer engineers may work together to design and manufacture electronic equipment which requires both hardware and software design. Common computer engineering tasks include writing embedded software for real-time microcontrollers, designing VLSI chips, working with analog sensors, designing mixed signal circuit boards, and designing operating systems. Computer engineering will draw an increasing number of students who have an interest in the design of computer hardware and software. The Bureau of Labor Statistics estimates that by the year 2005, computer engineering will become the second-largest engineering field.

Ceramic Engineering:

 

This branche of engineering deals with composition and behavior of materials. The strength of materials under different kind of load conditions is studied. New materials can be produced as per requirement by combining different materials & their properties. The multibillion-dollar ceramic industry converts processed materials and raw materials taken directly from the earth (clay, sand, etc.) into such useful products as spark plugs, glass, electronic components, nuclear materials, abrasives, rocket components, and even tableware. High-temperature processing is the key to ceramic engineering, and the products are always inorganic, nonmetallic solids. From a single chemical source, ceramic engineers make useful materials in many forms. Carbon as diamond is used as an abrasive for grinding; carbon in the form of graphite is used for lubrication, as glass for crucibles, and as fiber for cloth. Career Opportunities are in abundance in this field in various areas, like in building space shuttles, producing ceramics teethes, bones and joints, making ultra fast computer systems, in fiber optic cables etc.

Dairy Technology

 

The efficient and hygienic production and distribution of dairy products come in the purview of diary technology. Dairy Technologists apply the knowledge of various other sciences such as bacteriology, chemistry, physics, economics and engineering to the production, preservation and distribution of dairy products.

Electrical Engineering:

Electrical engineers are concerned with the generation, distribution and use of electrical power and power control. Electrical engineers work with equipment that produce and distribute electricity such as generators, transmission lines, transformers, lighting and wiring in buildings. In fact, electrical engineers are involved in the practical application of electrical energy. Electrical engineers find jobs in power plants whether thermal, hydro or nuclear. They have job opportunities in industries like the railways, construction, civil aviation and all types of manufacturing plants. More than a quarter of all engineers concentrate in electrical engineering. The demand for electrical engineers is expected to remain high due to projected growth in the aerospace, telecommunications and microelectronics industries.

Electronics Engineering:

Branch of engineering that deals with the behavior of electron and application of this in developing equipments Electronic engineer study and use systems that operate by controlling the flow of electrons (or other charge carriers) in devices such as thermionic valves and semiconductors. The design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems is part of the field of electronics engineering, and includes the hardware design side of computer engineering.

 

Environmental Engineering:

Branch of interdisciplinary engineering which deals with the protection of environment and developing equipments for reducing air, water pollution and instruments for monitoring pollution etc. Negative environmental effects can be decreased and. controlled through public education, conservation, regulations, and the application of good engineering practices.

 

Energy Engineering:

 

Branch of engineering that deals with the use, production, distribution, conversion and conservation of energy.

 

Food Technology:

Food technology is a field that has witnesses much advanced in recent years. The food industry has responded positively to this by developing new technology to cater to the new needs of the consumer market. Food technologist develops new methods for processing, preservation and packaging of foodstuffs and evaluating their nutritional value.

 

Food Processing Technology /Food Processing & Preservation Technology:

 

This is the latest are where lot of manpower is needed these days. World is fast moving towards processed, ready to eat food products. Tinned or packed food is the example of that opportunity of employment exists in Food processing Industries supply of packed / tinned food to Airlines, Defence and other places besides local market. Food Science and Technology is the Application of Science, Technology and Engineering to the Production, Marketing, Distribution and Utilization of Foods. To encourage education, investigation and research in all aspects of food science and technology to support improvement of the food supply and its use through science, technology and education. Job Opportunities are available in various food concerns like Pepsi foods, Pepsi Co India, Nestle etc.

 

Fire Engineering:

 

This branch of engineering deals with fire protection and design, development of fire protection equipment and process etc. It involves the study of the behavior, compartmentalization, suppression and investigation of fire and its related emergencies as well as the research and development, production, testing and application of mitigating systems. In structures, be they land-based, offshore or even ships, the owners and operators are responsible to maintain their facilities in accordance with a design-basis that is rooted in laws, including the local building code and fire code, which are enforced by the Authority Having Jurisdiction. Buildings must be constructed in accordance with the version of the holding code that is in effect when an application for a building permit is made. Building inspectors check on compliance of a building under construction with the building code. Once construction is complete, a building must be maintained in accordance with the current fire code, which is enforced by the fire prevention officers of a local fire department. In the event of fire emergencies, Firefighters, the investigators, and other fire prevention personnel called to mitigate, investigate and learn from the damage of a fire. Lessons learned from fires are applied to the authoring of both building codes and fire codes.

 

Information Technology:

 

Information technology (IT) is an evolving interdisciplinary field that is driven and shaped by the rapid development of computing. Communication and Internet based technologies and their tremendous impact on our daily lives. In contrast to the more traditional information systems discipline, information technology deals with the development, utilization, inter-relation and confluence of computers, networking, telecommunication, business and technology management in the context of the global Internet. As we enter the information Age of the 21st century, society will be increasingly dependent on information technology, and demand for IT professionals will remain high throughout the decades to come. In particular, IT deals with the use of electronic computers and computer software to convert, store, protect process, transmit, and retrieve information. For that reason, computer professionals are often called IT specialists, and the division of a company or university that deals with software technology is often called the IT department. Other names for the latter are information services (IS) or management information services (MIS), managed service providers (MSP). Information technology (IT) or Information and communication(s) technology (ICT) (also Infocomm) is a broad subject concerned with technology and other aspects of managing and processing information, especially in large organizations.

 

Industrial Engineering:

 

Industrial Engineering: studies the production resources of an industry-i.e, people, materials, information, fuel, energy etc. and ensures the effective utilization of these in the production process. The Industrial engineer interfaces between the management and operations sectors in order to ascertain the proper use of available industrial resources. Industrial engineering draws upon the principles and methods of engineering analysis and synthesis, as well as mathematical, physical and social sciences together with the principles and methods of engineering analysis and design to specify, predict and evaluate the results to be obtained from such systems. Industrial engineers work to eliminate wastes of time, money, materials, energy and other resources. Industrial Engineering is also known as Operations Management, Production Engineering, Manufacturing Engineering or Manufacturing Systems Engineering; a distinction that seems to depend on the viewpoint or motives of the user. Recruiters or Educational establishments use the names to differentiate themselves from others. In healthcare Industrial Engineers are more commonly known as Management Engineers Engineering management, or even Health Systems Engineers.

 

Whereas most engineering disciplines apply skills to very specific areas, industrial engineering is applied in virtually every industry. Examples of where industrial engineering might be used include shortening lines (or queues) at a theme park, streamlining an operating room, distributing products worldwide, and manufacturing cheaper and more reliable automobiles. The name "industrial engineer" can be misleading. While the term originally applied to manufacturing it has grown to encompass services and other industries as well. Similar fields include operations research, systems engineering, ergonomics and quality engineering. The unicist approach to engineering considers industry as a complex system. There are a number of things industrial engineers do in their work to make processes more efficient, to make products more manufacturable and consistent in their quality, and to increase productivity.

Instrumentation Engineering:

 

Instrumentation Engineering: is concerned with the development and maintenance of instrument systems in industries.

 

Mechanical Engineering:

 

Mechanical engineering applies the principles of mechanics and energy to the design of machines and devices. These engineers are concerned with the design, operation and maintenance of machines, their components, machine tools, manufacturing systems and processes. Perhaps the broadest of all engineering disciplines, mechanical engineering is generally combined into three broad areas: energy, structures and motion in mechanical systems, and manufacturing. Mechanical engineers work for a wide array of manufacturing and design firms. Almost every large technical or manufacturing company has a need for mechanical engineers. Manufacture's utilities and consulting firms large and small hire mechanical engineers. Mechanical engineers are expected to lead the revolution taking place in manufacturing processes, in which defects are eliminated and greater efficiencies achieved. The major divisions of mechanical engineering are designs and controls, thermo-science and fluids, engineering mechanics, and manufacturing. Depending on the colleges and the universities, some mechanical engineering programs offer more specialized programs, such as mechatronics. robotics, transport and logistics, cryogenics, and biomechanics, if a separate department does not exist for these subjects.

 

Modern analysis and design processes in mechanical engineering are aided by various computational tools like finite elemer t analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD), computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM). In system design and controls, a mechanical engineer may apply CAD/CAM systems to feed "instructions" to computer numerically-controlled (CNC) machines such as robots, milling machines, and lathes. In this way the engineer could automate the manufacturing process without the need for intermediate drawings. A mechanical engineer working in thermo-fluid might design a heat sink, an air conditioning system, or an internal combustion engine. Other processes might focus on the fluid itself, such as a fan to cool an electrical system, a turbine to power a submarine, or a spray gun to apply chemical coatings. Given the wide range of subjects, students preparing to study mechanical engineering should consider the programs available in their respective colleges and universities. Most mechanical engineering programs offer the major subjects of study. Fundamental subjects of mechanical engineering include: statics, dynamics, strength of materials, solid mechanics, thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, heat transfer-refrigeration and air conditioning, kinematics (including robotics), manufacturing technology, mechatronics and control theory. Mechanical engineers are also expected to understand and be able to apply concepts from chemistry and electrical engineering. At the smallest scales, mechanical engineering becomes nanotechnology and molecular engineering - one speculative goal of which is to create a molecular assembler to build molecules and materials via mechanosynthesis.

 

Mining Engineering:

 

Mining provides the raw materials and energy resources needed to sustain modern civilization. The mining curriculum combines basic engineering subjects, topics in geology and essential courses in mining to prepare graduates to discover evaluate and develop mineral deposits. Graduates of the program design, operate, manage and reclaim mines and mining facilities in a profitable, safe and environmentally responsible manner. A career in mining engineering requires a strong background in mathematics, computer applications, economics, communication skills and physical sciences, particularly geology, physics and chemistry. A strong global and domestic economy requires innovative well-trained engineers to meet the ever-increasing demand for energy and mineral resources. Materials recovered by mining include bauxite, coal, diamonds, iron, precious metals, lead, limestone, nickel, phosphate, rock salt, tin, uranium, and molybdenum. Any material that cannot be grown from agricultural processes must be mined. Mining in a wider sense can also include extraction of petroleum, natural gas, and even water.

 

Printing Technology:

 

With advent of science and technology, computers, lasers and microprocessor, printing has become no longer a craft. It is a multi-disciplinary profession dealing with nitration of text and graphic to make a final print by transferring ink or paper or board or other materials. As s printing technologist, one can find jobs in newspapers and magazines, advertising agencies, machine manufacturers and in packaging industries etc.

 

Plastic & Rubber Technology:

 

Plastic is now a house hold goods and Plastic Technologist works for design, development and utilization of plastic in industrial as well as domestic sector. The plastic industry is an expanding one with new products and applications being developed all the time. Plastic goods are used throughout the world with everything from household goods to the most advanced aircraft using the latest technology. The range of use is endless because plastic is so versatile. Plastic has many unique properties—it is strong and light, soft and flexible, is heat resistant and free from corrosion. The plastic industry in India has made significant achievements ever since it made a modest but promising beginning by commencing production of polystyrene in 1957. The potential Indian market has motivated entrepreneurs to acquire technical expertise, achieve high quality standards and build capacities in various facets of the booming plastic industry.

 

Rubber is useful in many industries as an ingredient in the manufacturing process, including various automobile and its components. Rubber and recycled rubber have a variety of applications within the transportation, agriculture, sports & fitness, playground equipment and manufacturing industries. Specialization include products for high technology companies such as health care, military, aerospace, electronics and food processing industries including rubber-to-metal bonded parts. The plastic and rubber sector is considered a sunrise industry and has been exhibiting a consistent export growth rate in the past. The top ten trading partners of India's plastic products include USA, UAE, Italy, UK, Belgium, Germany, Singapore, Saudi Arabia, China and Hong Kong.

 

Textile Technology:

 

Textile engineering combines the principles of engineering with specific knowledge of textile equipment and processes. Textile engineers design, research, develops and implements automated systems for fiber production, handling and utilization. Careers paths include process engineering, R&D production control technical sales, quality control and corporate management through the production supervisory route.

 

Leather Technology:

 

It deals with processing of leather obtained from various sources. After processing various products are made depending on its properties of the leather. Various types of suitcases, Jacket, Bags etc. are made from leather. Various methods to preserve it for a longer period are also taught. Job opportunities exist in the industries dealing with above-mentioned products.

 

Marine Engineering:

 

It is the branch of engineering, which operate and maintain the propulsion and electrical generation systems onboard a ship. They also can help with the design, build, and repair of these complicated systems. New design is mostly included within the naval architecture or ship design. The merchant and military fleets of the world would not move without Marine Engineers. The field is closely related to mechanical engineering, although the modern engineer requires knowledge (and hands on experience) with electrical, electronic, pneumatic, hydraulic, chemistry, control engineering, naval architecture, process engineering, gas turbines and even nuclear technology on military vessels. Marine Engineering staff also deal with the "Hotel" facilities onboard, notably the sewage, lighting, air conditioning and water systems. They deal with bulk fuel transfers, and require training in firefighting and first aid, as well as in dealing with the ship's boats and other nautical tasks- especially with cargo loading/discharging gear and safety systems. A ship's crew is divided into two distinct sections. Those who 'drive' the ship and those who maintain it. The drivers are the deck department whose manager is the Captain, and those who maintain and look after the technical side are the engineers, whose manager is the Chief engineer. Also on board are the 'ratings' who are experienced hands who, though not officers, play the central role in daily maintenance and operation of the ship. The original term engineer on a ship meant the people who dealt with the engines ("The black hand gang"), as opposed to the Consulting Engineer concept. Marine Engineers are generally much more hands on, and often get dirty, sweaty and hot doing their jobs. Care and thought is required, however, especially with heavy machinery in a seaway, and in managing the rest of the engine-room crew.

 

Metallurgical Engineering:

 

Metallurgical Engineering is indispensable activities in supplying materials to any industrialized nation. Curriculum is designed to provide fundamental knowledge of basic engineering and extensive coverage of the respective fields, which itself is very broad. The later portions of the program lead to applications of fundamental principles to specific designs. The metallurgical profession is extremely diverse, and it offers a wide variety of career opportunities for young people who have an interest in technology, science and engineering. Metallurgical engineers are employed in every industry and enterprise that produces, buys, sells refines or manufactures metals or metallic products. You have probably heard many times that modern societies cannot function without a plentiful supply of every conceivable type of metal and alloy and that people who are skilled in the use or production of metals and metallic materials of all kinds are highly valued.

 

Extractive metallurgy is the practice of separating metals from their ore, and refining them into a pure metal. In order to convert a metal oxide or sulfide to a metal, the metal oxide must be reduced either chemically or electrolyticallv. In production engineering, metallurgy is concerned with the production of metallic components for use in consumer or engineering products. This involves the production of alloys, the shaping, the heat treatment and the surface treatment of the product. The task of the metallurgist is to achieve design criteria specified by the mechanical engineer, such as cost, weight, strength, toughness, hardness, corrosion resistance and performance in extremes of temperature. Common engineering metals are aluminium, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, titanium and zinc. These are most often used as alloys. Much effort has been placed on understanding one very important alloy system, that of purified iron, which has carbon dissolved in it, better known as steel. Normal steel is used in low cost, high strength applications where weight and corrosion are not a problem. Cast irons, including ductile iron are also part of this system. Stainless steel is used where resistance to corrosion is important. Aluminium alloys and magnesium alloys are used for applications where strength and lightness are required.

Most engineering metals are stronger than most plastics and are tougher than most ceramics. Composites of plastics and materials such as glass fiber and carbon fiber rival metals in applications requiring high tensile strength with little weight. Concrete rivals metals in applications requiring high compressive strength and resistance to the effects of water. Wood rivals metal in applications requiring low cost and availability of materials and low cost of construction, as well as in applications requiring certain aesthetics. This is indeed true, and metallurgical engineers command good salaries, and young metallurgical graduates can expect to be able to choose from some exciting career alternatives. Opportunities for employment exists in Research Institutions / Public Sectors Heavy Steel Plants / Laborites where search is going on for new materials to be sued in space technology, Automobile Industry, Food processing, Nuclear Industries etc.

 

Naval Architecture:

 

Naval Architecture involves the design of systems that have to move above, on or under the sea like ship, submarine etc.

 

Ocean Engineering:

 

It deals with different aspects all Ocean Engineering and related areas decline with off shore and on-shore students. It is a new branch and the graduate of this branch will find employment in Public and Private sector e.g. ONGC etc. The goal of Ocean Engineering is to develop the knowledge and technology to foster and enable the wise and effective use, development, and preservation of the ocean, its natural resources and environment. Our mission is to educate students to meet this challenge and to provide them with the foundation for life Career opportunities for ocean engineering and naval architects abound in industry, government, and in academic and research communities. The opportunities promise to expand still further as the world turns to the ocean with greater frequency to meet the needs for energy, food, minerals, and transportation, Jobs are available in Academia, CAD/CAM, Acoustics, counseling firms, Naval Architecture, Ship Building, Shipping etc.

 

Robotics:

 

Robotics is the branch of engineering that deals with robots and artificial intelligence. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is defined as intelligence exhibited by an artificial (non-natural, man-made) entity. Although "AI" has a strong science-fiction connotation, it forms a vital branch of computer science, dealing with intelligent behavior in machines. AI divides into two schools of thought. Many definitions describe this segregation differently, but all roughly convey the same idea: Conventional AI (symbolic AI / logical AI / neat AI): distinguished by formalism, statistical analysis, definitions and proof. Machine learning has become associated primarily with conventional AI. It includes expert systems and case based reasoning.

 

Computational Intelligence (CI) (non-symbolic AI / scruffy AI, soft computing): recognized for its informal, non-statistical and often trial-and-error approaches. Learning is usually an iterative process of connectionist system parameter tuning, based on empirical data. CI subdivides into 3 main sections: Neural networks, Fuzzy systems and Evolutionary computation. This research overlaps with a-life, cognitive science, cybernetics & robotics. Many hybrid intelligent systems have also appeared.

Materials Science:

 

It is the multidisciplinary field relating the performance and function of matter in any and all applications to its micro, nano, and atomic-structure, and vice versa. It is closely related to applied physics, chemical engineering and chemistry, bioengineering and biology, mechanical engineering, civil engineering and electrical engineering: it is one of the most multidisciplinary science and engineering fields. Fundamentally, all of nanoscience and nanotechnology is materials science. Because of this, in recent years materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many universities, sometimes controversially: many academics feel that the nano buzzword is bringing in large amounts of funding at the cost of detracting from the teaching of fundamental materials science by putting too much emphasis on devices and applications which may or may not see fruition as working products.

 

Engineering Physics (EP):

 

Engineering Physics is an academic degree, usually at the level of Bachelor of Science. Unlike other engineering degrees (such as aerospace engineering or electrical engineering). EP does not necessarily include a particular branch of science or physics. Instead, EP is meant to provide a more thorough grounding in applied physics of any area chosen by the student (such as optics, nanotechnology, control theory, aerodynamics, or solid-state physics).

 

Micro Technology

 

Micro technology is technology with features near one micrometer (one millionth of a meter, or 10⁶ meter, or 1im). In the 1960s, scientists learned that by arraying large numbers of microscopic transistors on a single chip, microelectronic circuits could be built that dramatically improve performance, functionality, and reliability, all while reducing cost and decreasing volume. This development led to the Information Revolution. More recently, scientists have learned that not only electrical devices, but also mechanical devices, may be miniaturized and batch-fabricated, promising the same benefits to the mechanical world as integrated circuit technology has given to the electrical world. While electronics now provide the 'brains' for today's advanced systems and products, micromechanical devices can provide the sensors and actuators — the eyes and ears, hands and feet — which interface to the outside world. Today, micromechanical devices are the key components in a wide range of products such as automobile airbags, ink-jet printers, blood pressure monitors, and projection display systems. It seems clear that in the not-too-distant future these devices will be as pervasive as electronics.

 

Nanotechnology:

 

Nanotechnology comprises technological developments on the nanometer scale, usually 0.1 to 100 nm (1/1,000 um, or 1/1,000,000 mm). A possible way to interpret this size is to take the length of a hair, and imagine something ten thousand times smaller. The term has sometimes been applied to microscopic technology. Nanotechnology is any technology which exploits phenomena and structures that can only occur at the nanometer scale, which is the scale of several atoms and small molecules. The United States' National Nanotechnology Initiative website defines it as follows: "Nanotechnology is the understanding and control of matter at dimensions of roughly 1 to 100 nanometers, where unique phenomena enable novel applications." Such phenomena include quantum confinement—which can result in different electromagnetic and optical properties of a material between nanoparticles and the bulk material; the Gibbs-Thomson effect—which is the lowering of the melting point of a material when it is nanometers in size; and such structures as carbon nanotubes.

 

Nanoscience and nanotechnology are an extension of the field of materials science, and materials science departments at universities around the world in conjunction with physics, mechanical engineering, bioengineering and chemical engineering departments are leading the breakthroughs in nanotechnology. The related term nanotechnology is used to describe the interdisciplinary fields of science devoted to the study of nanoscale phenomena employed in nanotechnology. Nanoscience is the world of atoms, molecules, macromolecules, quantum dots, and macromolecular assemblies, and is dominated by surface effects such as Van der Waals force attraction, hydrogen bonding, electronic charge, ionic bonding, covalent bonding, hydrophobicity, hydrophilicity and quantum mechanical tunneling, to the virtual exclusion of macro-scale effects such as turbulence and inertia. For example, the vastly increased ratio of surface area to volume opens new possibilities in surface-based science, such as catalysis.

Nuclear Technology:

 

It is the technology that involves the reactions of atomic nuclei. It has found applications from smoke detectors to nuclear reactors and from gun sights to nuclear weapons. There is a great deal of public concern about its possible implications, and every application of nuclear technology is reviewed with care.

 

Major current applications:

 

Nuclear weapons of various designs can release tremendous destructive power. Some have been designed to level cities (up to the largest, Tsar Bomba), while other designed have looked at smaller nuclear weapons, for nuclear artillery, nuclear land mines, and nuclear bunker-busting missiles. International agreements attempt to regulate nuclear testing and limit nuclear proliferation. Nuclear medicine is the application of nuclear technology to medicine. This includes the use of radiation to obtain images of the inside of a living body, as well as to destroy cancer. Radioactive tracers are used to probe the motion of elements on the body.

 

Nuclear power is the application of nuclear technology to generate power. This includes both large nuclear power plants and smaller, safer, nuclear batteries. The latter have been used on a number of spacecraft as compact, light, long-term energy sources and to power cardiac pacemakers. Ionizing radiation is readily generated by, radioactive decay. Nuclear technology is often used to construct gamma ray or neutron sources. This ionizing radiation can be useful in killing cancerous cells or in sterilizing food and water (this process is generally known as irradiation).

 

A number of consumer items use nuclear technology: Smoke detectors often contain americjum; they detect smoke because it reduces the ability of alpha radiation to ionize air in the detector's ionization chamber. Glowing watch dials and gun sights (now) often contain tritium, whose decay triggers phosphorescence in a pigment on the dial. During World War II they often contained radium instead.

 

Nuclear Physics

 

Nuclear physics is the branch of physics concerned with the nucleus of the atom. It has three main aspects: probing the fundamental particles (protons and neutrons) and their interactions classifying and interpreting the properties of nuclei, and providing technological advances. Nuclei do not lend themselves to exact theoretical understanding, because they are composed of many particles (mesons as well as protons and neutrons), but are not large enough to be accurately described as periodic, as done with crystals. So "nuclear models" that, singly or in combination, account for most nuclear behavior are used. Three of the four types of physical interaction play important roles in nuclei, the strong, electromagnetic and, on a longer time scale, weak.

 

Nuclei are held together by strong interactions (mostly exchanging pions), but electromagnetic repulsion of the positively charged protons tends to push them apart, according to Coulomb's law The stable nuclei all have close to the lowest energy ratio of protons to neutron for their atomic weight. Nuclei near enough to this ratio to be bound but not close enough to be stable, give off electrons or positrons (beta decay) or take in electrons (and also give off neutrinos), to move closer the that ratio. This is the main place where the weak interactions come in. Nuclei that are too massive to be stable are pulled apart by the coulomb repulsion of their protons and either fission or give off alpha particles.

 

Though the number of energy levels in not infinite, as it is for the electron wave functions of atoms, most stable or nearly stable nuclei have many bound levels. These usually decay toward the sound state by emitting gamma ray photons. Protons and neutrons are fermions, with different value of the isospin quantum number, so two protons and two neutrons can share the same space wave function. In the rare case of a hypernucleus, a third baryon called a hyperon, with a different value of the strangeness quantum number can also share the wave function. The binding energies of the protons and neutrons are on the order of 1 % of their relativistic rest masses, so non-relativistic quantum mechanics can be used with errors usually smaller than those from other approximations. Often, nuclear physicists will use Nuclear Units where ', c, and the mass of the proton mp have been set to unity.

Optical Engineering:

 

It is the field of study which focuses on applications of optics.

 

Optical engineers design optical instruments such as microscopes, telescope and other equipment that utilises the properties of light, including optical sensors and measurement systems, as well as lasers, fiber optics communication systems, optical disc systems (e.g., CD,DVD), and many others. Since optical engineers want to design and build devices that make light do something useful they must understand and apply the science of optics in substantial detail, in order to know what is physically possible to achieve (physics and chemistry). But they also must know what is practical in terms of available technology, materials, costs, design methods, etc. As with other fields of engineering, computers are important to many (perhaps most) optical engineers. They are used with instruments, for simulation, in design, and for many other applications. Engineers often use general computer tools such as spreadsheets and programming languages, and they also make frequent use of specialized optical software designed specifically for their field. Optical engineering metrology uses optical methods to measure micro-vibrations with instruments like the laser speckle interferometer or to measure the properties of the various masses with instruments measuring refraction.

 

Optical Physics, or Optical Science:

 

It is a subfield of atomic, molecular, and optical physics. It is the study of the generation of electromagnetic radiation, the properties of that radiation, and the interaction of that radiation with matter, especially its manipulation and control. It differs from general optics and optical engineering in that it is focused on the discovery and application of new phenomena. There is no strong distinction, however, between optical physics, applied optics, and optical engineering, since the devices of optical engineering and the applications of applied optics are necessary for basic research in optical physics, and that research leads to the development of new d vices and applications. Often the same people are involved in both the basic research and the applied technology development.

 

Researchers in optical physics use and develop light sources that span the electromagnetic spectrum from microwaves to X-rays. The field includes the generation and detection of light, linear and nonlinear optical processes, and spectroscopy. Lasers and laser spectroscopy have transformed optical science. Major study in optical physics is also devoted to quantum optics and coherence, and to femtosecond optics. In optical physics, support is also provided in areas such as the nonlinear response of isolated atoms to intense, ultra-short electromagnetic fields, the atom-cavity interaction at high fields, and quantum properties of the electromagnetic field. Other important areas of research include the development of novel optical techniques for nano-optical measurements, diffractive optics, low-coherence interferometry, optical coherence tomography, and near-field microscopy. Research in optical physics places an emphasis on ultrafast optical science and technology. The applications of optical physics create advancements in communications, medicine, manufacturing, and even entertainment.

 

Financial Engineering:

 

Financial Engineering has a number of possible meanings: Computational finance and Financial Reinsurance. Computational finance (also known as financial engineering) is a cross-disciplinary field which relies on mathematical finance, numerical methods and computer simulations to make trading, hedging and investment decisions, as well as facilitating the risk management of those decisions. Utilizing various methods, practitioners of Financial Engineering aim to precisely determine the financial risk that certain financial instruments create. Areas where computational finance techniques are employed include:

Investment banking

Corporate strategic planning

Securities trading and risk management

Derivatives trading and risk management

Investment management

 

Manufacturing Engineering/Production Engineering:

 

Production Engineering is the transformation of raw materials into finished goods for sale, by means of tools and a processing medium, and including all intermediate processes involving the production or finishing of component parts (“semi-manufactures”). It is a large branch of industry and of secondary production. Some industries, like semiconductor and steel manufacturers use the term “fabrication”. Although handicraft production has been with us for many millennia, modern-style manufacturing is generally regarded as beginning around 1780 with the British Industrial Revolution, spreading thereafter to Continental Europe and North America, and subsequently around the world. Originally, the term applied to commodities or artifacts which were “made by hand”.

 

Telecommunication Engineering:

 

It is the branch of engineering that deals communication of information over a distance. The term comes from a contraction of the Greek tele, meaning 'far', and communications, meaning “the discipline that studies the principles of transmitting information and the methods by which it is delivered (as print or radio or television etc.)" The term is most used to refer to communication using some type of signalling, such as the aldis lamp or the transmission and reception of electromagnetic energy. This covers many media and technologies including radio, fiber optics, telegraphy, television, telephone, data communication and computer networking, although other types of signalling are also included.

 

Paper Engineering/Technology:

 

Paper technology encompasses the design and analysis of the equipment and processes that are used in the manufacture of paper. The field encompasses the preparation of fibrous materials from (usually) trees via a pulping process, chemical and mechanical pretreatment of the fibers in a fluid suspension, the forming and dewatering of a web on a paper machine, and the post-treatment of the sheet with coating, calendering, and other mechanical processes. Paper making is not chemical engineering. On the contrary, the paper industry is a client of the chemical industry.

 

Nuclear Engineering:

 

It is the practical application of the atomic nucleus gleaned from principles of nuclear physics and the interaction between radiation and matter. This field of engineering includes the design, analysis, development, testing, operation and maintenance of nuclear fission systems and components, specifically, nuclear reactors, nuclear power plants and/or nuclear weapons. The field can also include the study of nuclear fusion, medical applications of radiation, nuclear safety, heat transport, nuclear fuels technology, nuclear proliferation, and the effect of radioactive waste or radioactivity in the environment.

 

Petroleum Engineering:

 

Petroleum Engineering is involved in the exploration and production activities of petroleum as an upstream end of the energy sector. Upstream, refers to the source of the petroleum, the petroleum deposit, usually buried deep beneath the earth's surface supplying flow to consumers as a river supplies the ocean. The diverse topics covered by petroleum engineering are closely related to the earth sciences. Petroleum engineering topics include geology, geochemistry, geomechanics, geophysics, oil drilling, geopolitics, knowledge management, seismology, team building, team work, tectonics, thermodynamics, a well logging, well completion, oil and gas production, reservoir development, and pipelining. It is an increasingly technical profession that involves procuring reserves from places that predecessors deemed too difficult or not economic with the technology of the day or commodity prices. While not thought of as highly technical in some circles, this is a fallacy. The use of high technology equipment, high speed computers, innovative materials, team management philosophies, statistics, probability analysis, and knowledge management, is usually coupled with the reality of only indirect measurement of most essential facts due to being buried under miles of earth. One look at the number of patents held for use in the industry is testimony to the highly technical nature of this field.

 

One key aspect of this profession is excellence. Where mistakes are measured in millions of dollars petroleum engineers will be held to a higher standard. Deepwater operations can be compared to space travel in terms of technical challenges. Arctic conditions and conditions of extreme heat have to be contended with. High Temperature and High Pressure (HTHP) environments that have become increasingly commonplace in today's operations require the petroleum engineer to be savvy in topics as wide ranging as thermohydraulics, geomechanics, and intelligent systems. Petroleum engineers must implement high technology plans with the use of manpower, highly coordinated and often in dangerous conditions. The drilling rig crew and machines they use becomes the remote partner of the petroleum engineer in implementing every drilling program. Understanding and accounting for the issues and communication challenges of building these teams remain just as vital to the petroleum engineer as ever.

 

The Society of Petroleum Engineers is the largest professional society for petroleum engineers and is a good source of information. Petroleum engineering education is available at dozens of universities in the United States and throughout the world - primarily in oil producing states - but not only top producers. Petroleum engineers have historically been one of the highest paid engineering disciplines; this is offset by a tendency for mass layoffs when oil prices decline. Petroleum engineering offers a challenging blend of earth sciences, geology, operations, politics, advanced mathematics and the opportunity to risk massive amounts of money. The rewards for successful engineers range from high paying jobs to the opportunities to start oil companies.

Software Engineering (SE):

 

It is the profession of people who create and maintain software applications by applying technologies and practices from computer science, project management, engineering, application domains and other fields. Software engineering deals with issues of cost and reliability, like traditional engineering disciplines. Some software applications contain millions of lines of code that are expected to perform properly in the face of changing conditions, making them comparable in complexity to the most complex modern machines. For examples, a modern airlines has several million physical parts and the space same (about ten million parts), while the software for such an airliner can run to 4 million lines of codes.

 

Safety Engineering:

 

Safety engineering is an applied science strongly related to systems engineering. Safety engineering assures that a life-critical system behaves as needed even when pieces fail. Safety engineers distinguish different extents of defective operation: A "fault" is said to occur when some piece of equipment does not operate as designed. A "failure" only occurs if a human being (other than a repair person) has to cope with the situation. A "critical" failure endangers one or a few people. A "catastrophic" failure endangers harms or kills a significant number of people. Safety engineers also identify different modes of safe operation: A "probabilistically safe" system has no single point of failure, and enough redundant sensors, computers and effectors so that it is very unlikely to cause harm (usually "very unlikely" means, on average, less than one human life lost in a billion hours of operation). An inherently safe system is a clever mechanical arrangement that cannot be made to cause harm - obviously the best arrangement, but this is not always possible. A fail-safe system is one that cannot cause harm when it fails. A "fault-tolerant" system can continue to operate, with faults, though its operation may be degraded in some fashion.

 

These terms combine to describe the safety needed by systems: For example, most biomedical equipment is only "critical", and often another identical piece of equipment is nearby, so it can be merely "probabilistically fail-safe". Train signals can cause "catastrophic" accidents (imagine chemical releases from tank-cars) and are usually "inherently safe". Aircraft "failures" are "catastrophic" (at least for their passengers and crew) so aircraft are usually "probabilistically fault-tolerant". Without any safety features, nuclear reactors might have "catastrophic failures", so real nuclear reactors are required to be at least "probabilistically fail-safe", and some such as pebble bed reactors are "inherently fault-tolerant".

 

Space Technology/Engineering:

 

Space technology/engineering is a term that is often treated as a different category of engineering. Outer space (as commonly used, the universe exclusive of Earth, see also extraterrestrial) is such an alien environment that attempting to work with it leads inevitably to new leading edge techniques and knowledge. New technologies originating with or accelerated by space-related endeavors are often subsequently exploited in other economic activities. This has been widely pointed to as beneficial spin-off by space advocates and enthusiasts favoring the investment of public funds in space activities and programs. Political opponents counter that it would be far cheaper to develop specific technologies directly if they are beneficial and scoff at this justification for public expenditures on space-related research. For example: Computers and telemetry were once leading edge technologies that might have been considered "space technology" because of their criticality to boosters and spacecraft. They existed prior to the Space Race of the Cold War but their development was vastly accelerated to meet the needs of the two major superpowers' space programs. While still used today in spacecraft and missiles, the more prosaic applications such as remote monitoring (via telemetry) of patients, water plants, highway conditions, etc. and the widespread use of computers far surpasses their space applications in quantity and variety of application.

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